The Mirror and the Treasure: The Navigational Charts of Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer

by Peter A. Douglas

In any case, the word is fading into obsolescence as there are now few wagon drivers to be seen. A dictionary might also mention the proper noun “Wagoner,” another name for the northern constellation Auriga, the Charioteer.

The exception is the Oxford English Dictionary, which offers a second definition, saying that the word also means “a book of charts for nautical use.” With our thoughts still ruminating on horses and carts and astronomical mythology, this meaning might at first strike us as rather odd. But the OED goes on to say that the word is the anglicized form of the Dutch surname “Waghenaer,” and specifically that of Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer (c. 1533–1606), a noted marine cartographer from the harbor town of Enkhuisen in the province of North Holland. This derivation at least partially explains the connection.

In the latter part of the 16th century, increasing trade within European waters led to a rising demand for accurate navigational charts that would ensure both the safety and swiftness of a nation’s commercial fleet. Ships’ officers did not rely solely on their own country’s cartographers for their sea charts, or on translations of the works of foreigners, such as Pedro de Medina’s Arte de Navegar, 1545. It was not unusual for skippers to make their own maps of anchorages, channels, and coastal features to help them recognize landmarks on future voyages. Sometimes these were later published or were incorporated into volumes of charts. Nautical charts were so prized that they were often taken from plundered ships along with the usual booty.

Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer, an experienced former navigation officer, produced and published in the late 16th century a series of sea charts that would come to be eponymously called “waggoners.” He was prominent in the early development of maritime cartography in the northern Netherlands, and was one of the founders and the most notable member of the North Holland School of cartography. While Amsterdam was developing into a vital commercial center, demanding and controlling the production of maps and sea charts, this major cartographic school was already flourishing in the Kop van Noord-Holland region. It specialized in small-scale charts of larger areas, including European and Atlantic Ocean coastlines. The cities of Enkhuisen, Hoorn, and Edam were important trading ports, and ideal for becoming centers of cartography that served sea-borne navigation.

Waghenaer’s long sea-going experience made him well qualified for his new occupation.He recognized the market for mass-produced sea charts, and the publication milestone that he is known for appeared in 1584 under the title Spieghel der Zeevaerdt (The Mirror of Seagoing), the world’s first nautical atlas and pilot’s guide, for the first time incorporating charts in a book of sailing directions and astronomical tables. Dedicated to William I, Prince of Orange, it was one of the most important contributions to the art of navigation in Western Europe. A totally original work, it was based on Waghenaer’s own observations and practical knowledge as a pilot. It covered the area regularly sailed by Dutch ships in the coastal waters of western and northern Europe.

The charts in the Spieghel were intended for pilots entering ports and for coastal sailing, not for ocean navigation. As well as the maps there were also coastal profiles so the skipper could recognize where he was in relation to the shore, along with notations for depth measurements, tides, shoals, and currents. While the details of the coastlines were simplified, the charts were very clear and even included landmarks such as windmills, beacons, church spires, castles, and houses visible from the sea. A particular feature of Waghenaer’s charts was the standardization of symbols for such things as safe anchorages, buoys, hidden rocks, and other dangers to navigation. The Spieghel was immediately popular, ran into many editions, and was translated into several languages.

The English translation of the Spieghel by Anthony Ashley was published in the Armada year of 1588 as The Mariner’s Mirror. The charts were much admired in England, and sailors called them the near-homophonic familiar word “waggoners,” after their maker.

Waghenaer’s Spieghel was printed in a large folio, along with colorful and detailed depictions of ships, sea creatures, legends, navigation instruments, and wind roses.
The lavishness of the decoration did not mean, however, that geographical accuracy came second. The meticulous nature of the maps’ artwork, and the splendor and intricacy of the engraving suggest that the charts were not made for use at sea but served a more decorative and consultative purpose on land, perhaps as illustrative conversation pieces in the offices of ship owners and wealthy merchants. Although the work was a great success in such circles and among academics, by and large, despite its fine qualities, pilots found the hefty format impractical at sea.

The result was that in 1592 Waghenaer introduced a new sea atlas in a compact oblong format. This was his Thresoorder Zeevaerdt (The Treasure of Seagoing), which was compiled on similar lines as the Spieghel but with the text altered and expanded, and with the charts on a different scale showing the coasts very much in their true proportions. Harbors and estuaries appear in much greater detail than the intervening coastlines. It was cheaper and smaller than his previous work, and better adapted to the shipboard needs of the users. Like his earlier work, the Thresoor was intended for use in European waters, and included Scotland, Ireland, and parts of the White Sea and the Baltic. Reflecting the expanding global outlook of Dutch navigation, it also included coastal details of the Mediterranean, plus a supplementary section, with text only, describing navigation to the East Indies and China.

Waghenaer’s last pilot-book was his Enchuyser Zeecaertboeck (Enkhuisen Sea Chart Book), published in 1598. Here he returned to the old style of a simple pilot’s pocket book in octavo. It was without maps but contained a detailed text and numerous coastal outlines.

From that period on, consistent efforts were made to produce reliable sea charts, and revisions reflected the growth of knowledge and the widening range of travel and discovery. They were essential to the Dutch Republic, whose vigorous trading and maritime ambitions overlapped. The nation’s commercial drive was reflected in the creation and evolution of marine cartography in which Waghenaer played so significant a part. He became an important pioneer in the development of safe navigation for trade along Europe’s coasts, and shaped the tradition of seamen’s guides for long-distance ocean voyages. Waghenaer set a high standard for cartographers such as Willem Blaeu who followed.

The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602, so before Waghenaer’s death in 1606 he was able to see the first Dutch ships back from the Indies at anchor in the harbor of his hometown.
His contribution to marine cartography helped bring great wealth to others, but not to himself. Despite the value and success of his publications, Waghenaer died in poverty, leaving his widow in such needy circumstances that the municipal authorities of Enkhuisen were moved to ask the States General to provide her with a pension.

Waghenaer’s name also survives marginally in the science of oceanography: the Waghenaer Fracture Zone is named for him, a long narrow rift in the ocean floor of the Pacific.
Such is fame.